Grammar: Some/Any/No Article

 

'Some', 'Any', and 'No Article'

We can use some, any or 'no article' before plural or uncountable nouns. They all mean something similar to a/an before a singular noun. For example:

• Can I have a banana? [One banana, but any one is okay.]
• Can I have some bananas? [More than one banana, but any small group is okay.]

The difference between some and 'no article':

Often, there isn't a big difference in meaning between 'no article' and some. However, we use some when we are talking about a limited number or amount (but we don't know or we don't want to say the exact quantity).

Some means 'a certain number of' or 'a certain amount of'. We don't use some if we are talking about something in general or thinking about it as a category. When we use some, we don't say the exact quantity, but we could probably find it out if we needed to. For example:

• Can you buy some milk? [We don't know exactly how much, but I'm talking about a certain amount of milk – I don't want all the milk in the world.]

On the other hand, we use 'no article' when we aren't thinking about the quantity. It's used to talk about the noun as a category, rather than a certain amount of it:

• We need Ø milk to make pancakes. [I'm thinking about milk as a category. I'm not thinking about a certain amount of milk.]

More examples:

• We need to buy Ø coffee [I'm talking about coffee as a category, not thinking about the amount].
• Would you like some coffee? [I mean a certain amount of coffee, probably a cup.]
• I ate some bread [I mean a certain amount of bread].
• I ate Ø bread [not pasta or rice].

Remember that often it doesn't make a big difference:

• Do you want Ø tea? [I'm not thinking about the amount.]
• Do you want some tea? [I'm thinking about the amount, but the meaning is really the same as the first sentence.]

Try an exercise about this here.

The difference between some and any:

Generally, we use any in the same way as some: when we are thinking about a certain amount or number of something. Remember, usually both some and any can only be used with plural countable nouns or uncountable nouns, but not usually with singular countable nouns.

We usually use some with affirmative (positive) sentences and any with negatives and questions:

• She bought some tomatoes [positive sentence].
• She didn't buy any tomatoes [negative sentence].
• Did she buy any tomatoes [question]?

However, there are some exceptions to this.

1: Any can be used in a positive sentence to mean 'it's not important which one'. When we use any in this way, it's most often used with singular countable nouns:

• You can take any bus.
• Pass me any glass.
• Come over any Sunday.

2: Any can also be used in positive sentences that have a negative feeling, for example if they include never, hardly, without:

• She never eats any fruit.
• We hardly watch any television.
• Julia left the house without any money.

3: Some can be used in questions when we expect that the answer will be 'yes'. This is very common in offers and requests:

• Would you like some coffee?
• Do you want some sandwiches?
• Could you give me some help?
• Could you pass me some sugar?

Compare the following two sentences:

• Do you have any letters for me? [This is a real question. I don't know if you have any letters or not.]
• Do you have some letters for me? [I think you do, so I'm expecting that you will say 'yes'.]

Try another exercise about this here.

Grammar: Phrasal Verbs

 

Phrasal Verbs 1

1: GO ON = happen

• What's going on?
• There's a class going on at the moment.
• What went on last night?

2: PICK UP = get something or someone from a place

• I picked up my brother from the airport.
• Please pick up some bread.
• Would you come and pick me up from work tonight?

3: COME BACK = return to a place (the speaker is in that place)

• She came back around 10pm last night.
• When will you come back from France?
• Please come back! It's boring here without you.

4: COME UP WITH = produce an idea

• Julie came up with a great idea.
• He came up with an answer to the question very quickly.
• Can you come up with a better solution?

5: GO BACK = return to a place (the speaker isn't in that place)

• He finished his work and went back to his flat.
• When is she planning to go back to Japan?
• I'll go back to the library later.

6: FIND OUT = get information

• Can you find out what time the restaurant opens?
• I found out that we need to submit our essays next Tuesday.
• I don't know what the weather forecast is for tomorrow, but I'll find out.

7: COME OUT = appear from a place

• She came out of the kitchen.
• He went to the cafe and came out with a coffee.
• Please come out of the bedroom.

8: GO OUT = go to an event / restaurant / pub / party

• Let's go out for dinner.
• You're going out a lot these days.
• We should go out more.

9: POINT OUT = show / mention

• She pointed out the beautiful paintings on the walls.
• Please point out to the students that they must attend all the lectures.
• 'We'll miss the bus if we don't hurry', he pointed out.

10: GROW UP = become an adult

• I grew up in Scotland.
• My children are growing up too fast!
• When will he grow up?

11: SET UP = create / arrange

• I need to set up a new bank account.
• She's decided to set up her own company.
• I set up some language classes at the school.

12: TURN OUT = in the end we discover

• The maid turned out to have stolen the money.
• He turned out to be a friend of Alex's.
• The party turned out to be a big success.

13: GET OUT = leave a room / building / car

• I need to get out of the house!
• She got out of the car and went into the shop.
• Get out! There's a fire in the kitchen!

14: COME IN / INTO = enter (the speaker is in that place)

• Please come in! It's great to see you.
• She came into the living room and sat down.
• Don't come in! I'm not ready yet!

15: TAKE ON = to be responsible for

• He's going to take on the new project.
• She isn't taking on any new students at the moment.
• Could you take on some extra work?

Try an exercise about these phrasal verbs here.

Phrasal Verbs 2

16. GIVE UP = stop having or doing

• She has finally given up smoking.
• I had to give up coffee when I was ill.
• He gave up chocolate for a month.

17. MAKE UP = be the parts that form something (often used in the passive with 'of')

• Women make up 46% of the employees here.
• This class is made up entirely of boys.
• People who can speak English make up a quarter of the world's population.

18. END UP = finally do or be something, especially when you don't expect it

• We ended up going back home because it was raining so hard.
• They ended up passing the last exam, even though they failed all the other exams.
• Be careful! You'll end up without a job if you are rude to your boss.

19. GET BACK = arrive somewhere again, especially your home (+ to + place)

• She got back to Paris last night.
• What time did you get back yesterday?
• We got back very late because the train was delayed.

20. LOOK UP = raise your eyes

• She looked up from her computer and asked a question.
• I called his name, but he didn't look up.
• John looked up from his book when Julie came in.

21. FIGURE OUT = think about until you understand / plan (more common in USA)

• Let's figure out how we can get to London very early in the morning.
• She couldn't figure out why he had left.
• He finally figured out that the cat must have broken the plate.

22. SIT DOWN = change from standing to sitting

• Do please sit down.
• She sat down and took out her book.
• The children sat down in rows and crossed their legs.

23. GET UP = change from lying or sitting to standing (more casual than 'stand up')

• She got up when we arrived (= she was sitting and she stood up).
• I don't want to get up. It's so comfortable sitting here.
• What are you doing on the floor? Get up!

24. TAKE OUT = remove from a container (+ of before a noun)

• She took the letter out of the envelope.
• I'll take the sweets out of the box and put them under the Christmas tree now.
• He took his clothes out of the suitcase and put them away in the wardrobe.

25. COME ON = we say this to encourage someone to go faster or try harder

• Come on! You're going to be left behind.
• Come on, don't worry. It's all going to be fine.
• She kept telling me to come on, but I was already going as fast as I could.

26. GO DOWN = move to a lower place (+ to + place)

• She started to go down the stairs.
• We went down to the café and bought some coffee.
• Let's go down to the cellar and see if we can find those books.

27. SHOW UP = arrive at or come to an event / meeting (especially if there's something surprising)

• We all went to the party, but Lucy didn't show up.
• He showed up at the meeting two hours late. Julie was very angry.
• I wonder if John's going to show up today. He didn't come last time.

28. TAKE OFF = remove clothes or jewellery

• I took off my coat because it was very hot.
• She always takes off all her rings before she goes to bed.
• Is it okay to take off my shoes?

29. WORK OUT = think about until you understand / plan (more common in UK)

• We need to work out how to get to the wedding.
• She couldn't work out how the bird had got into the living room.
• I don't know why the car won't start but I'll work it out.

30. STAND UP = change from lying or sitting to standing (less casual than 'get up')

• Please stand up when the queen comes in.
• She finished her coffee, stood up, and left the restaurant.
• He stood up to let an old man have his seat.

Try an exercise about these phrasal verbs here.

Phrasal Verbs 3

31. COME DOWN (FROM) = move from a high place to a lower place

• She came down slowly from the roof.
• Do come down! You’re going to fall!
• They came down from the tower.

32. GO AHEAD = to begin to do something

• I asked the manager and she says to go ahead and start the meeting.
• Go ahead! You don’t need to wait for us!
• I’m going to go ahead and book the holiday.

33. GO UP = increase (in price or temperature, etc.)

• House prices have gone up a lot in the last few months.
• At the beginning of our trip, it was really cold but then the temperature went up.
• I can’t believe how much the prices have gone up since my last visit here.

34. LOOK BACK (ON) = think about something in the past

• When I look back on my childhood, I realise how different the world is now.
• She spent time looking back on the race and thinking about ways to improve for next time.
• When I look back on those days, I can’t believe how young and foolish we were.

35. WAKE UP = change from sleeping to being awake

• What time do you usually wake up?
• She woke me up at 5am!
• Could you wake up the children, please?

36. CARRY OUT = do and finish a task or activity

• She carried out an experiment on the cells in her laboratory.
• Please carry out the survey as soon as you can.
• The work was carried out by a local builder.

37. TAKE OVER = take control of

• I don’t want to invite Mark! He always takes over the conversation.
• When the boss resigned, Julie took over the company.
• The rebels took over the Parliament.

38. HOLD UP = hold something high up so people can see it

• She held up her hand.
• He held up the bag and asked if anyone would like a closer look.
• Please hold this up for a moment.

39. PULL OUT (OF) = take something out of a container

• She pulled her purse out of her pocket.
• He reached into the drawer and pulled out a notebook and pen.
• She grabbed her bag and pulled out a bottle of water.

40. TURN AROUND / TURN ROUND = move so you face the other direction

• He turned around and looked out the window.
• We walked along the beach for a while, then turned around and walked back.
• Turn around and don’t look! I’ve got a surprise for you!

41. TAKE UP = use a certain amount of space or time

• The table takes up most of the kitchen!
• This work will take up the whole weekend.
• The children take up most of my time.

42. LOOK DOWN = move your eyes down

• She was very shy and she looked down when she met anyone new.
• I looked down to see a puppy at my feet.
• He opened the window and looked down.

43. PUT UP = fix something where it will be seen

• She put up lots of pictures in her new flat.
• Please put up this notice.
• The children put their drawings up on the wall.

44. BRING BACK = make something return

• She brought the conversation back to the weekend.
• He wants to bring back traditional schools.
• We had stopped having weekly meetings but the new boss brought them back.

45. BRING UP = start to talk about

• I wasn’t going to mention it, but Julie brought up the plans for the holidays.
• I want to talk to my boss about my pay but I don’t know how to bring it up.
• After we sat down, she brought up the problems that she’d been having at work.

Try an exercise about these phrasal verbs here.

Grammar: Relative clauses

 

What is a relative clause?

(See a list of all the exercises about relative clauses here.)

We can use relative clauses to join two English sentences, or to give more information about something.

I bought a new car. It is very fast.
→ I bought a new car that is very fast.

She lives in New York. She likes living in New York.
→ She lives in New York, which she likes.

Defining and Non-defining

A defining relative clause tells which noun we are talking about:

• I like the woman who lives next door.
  (If I don't say 'who lives next door', then we don't know which woman I mean).

A non-defining relative clause gives us extra information about something. We don't need this information to understand the sentence.

• I live in London, which has some fantastic parks.
  (Everybody knows where London is, so 'which has some fantastic parks' is extra information).

Defining relative clauses:

1: The relative pronoun is the subject:

First, let's consider when the relative pronoun is the subject of a defining relative clause.

We can use 'who', 'which' or 'that'. We use 'who' for people and 'which' for things. We can use 'that' for people or things.

The relative clause can come after the subject or the object of the sentence. We can't drop the relative pronoun.

For example (clause after the object of the sentence):

• I'm looking for a secretary who / that can use a computer well.
• She has a son who / that is a doctor.
• We bought a house which / that is 200 years old.
• I sent a letter which / that arrived three weeks later.

More examples (clause after the subject of the sentence):

• The people who / that live on the island are very friendly.
• The man who / that phoned is my brother.
• The camera which / that costs £100 is over there.
• The house which / that belongs to Julie is in London.

Try an exercise where the relative pronoun is the subject here.

2: The relative pronoun is the object:

Next, let's talk about when the relative pronoun is the object of the clause. In this case we can drop the relative pronoun if we want to. Again, the clause can come after the subject or the object of the sentence. Here are some examples:

(Clause after the object)

• She loves the chocolate (which / that) I bought.
• We went to the village (which / that) Lucy recommended.
• John met a woman (who / that) I had been to school with.
• The police arrested a man (who / that) Jill worked with.

(Clause after the subject)

• The bike (which / that) I loved was stolen.
• The university (which / that) she likes is famous.
• The woman (who / that) my brother loves is from Mexico.
• The doctor (who / that) my grandmother liked lives in New York.

• Try an exercise where the relative pronoun is the object here
• Try an exercise about defining relative clauses, both subject and object here
• Try another exercise about defining relative clauses, both subject and object here

Non-defining relative clauses:

We don't use 'that' in non-defining relative clauses, so we need to use 'which' if the pronoun refers to a thing, and 'who' if it refers to a person. We can't drop the relative pronoun in this kind of clause, even if the relative pronoun is the subject of the clause.

(Clause comes after the subject)

• My boss, who is very nice, lives in Manchester.
• My sister, who I live with, knows a lot about cars.
• My bicycle, which I've had for more than ten years, is falling apart.
• My mother's house, which I grew up in, is very small.

(Clause comes after the object)

• Yesterday I called our friend Julie, who lives in New York.
• The photographer called to the Queen, who looked annoyed.
• Last week I bought a new computer, which I don't like now.
• I really love the new Chinese restaurant, which we went to last night.

Prepositions and relative clauses

If the verb in the relative clause needs a preposition, we put it at the end of the clause:

For example:

• listen to

The music is good. Julie listens to the music.
→ The music (which / that) Julie listens to is good.

• work with

My brother met a woman. I used to work with the woman.
→ My brother met a woman (who / that) I used to work with.

• go to

The country is very hot. He went to the country.
→ The country (which / that) he went to is very hot.

• come from

I visited the city. John comes from the city.
→ I visited the city (that / which) John comes from.

• apply for

The job is well paid. She applied for the job.
→ The job (which / that) she applied for is well paid.

Whose

'Whose' is always the subject of the relative clause and can't be left out. It replaces a possessive. It can be used for people and things.

The dog is over there. The dog's / its owner lives next door.
→ The dog whose owner lives next door is over there.

The little girl is sad. The little girl's / her doll was lost.
→ The little girl whose doll was lost is sad.

The woman is coming tonight. Her car is a BMW.
→ The woman whose car is a BMW is coming tonight.

The house belongs to me. Its roof is very old.
→ The house whose roof is old belongs to me.

Where / when / why

We can sometimes use these question words instead of relative pronouns and prepositions.

I live in a city. I study in the city.

→ I live in the city where I study.
→ I live in the city that / which I study in.
→ I live in the city in which I study.

The bar in Barcelona is still there. I met my wife in that bar.

→ The bar in Barcelona where I met my wife is still there.
→ The bar in Barcelona that / which I met my wife in is still there.
→ The bar in Barcelona in which I met my wife is still there.

The summer was long and hot. I graduated from university in the summer.

→ The summer when I graduated from university was long and hot.
→ The summer that / which I graduated from university in was long and hot.
→ The summer in which I graduated was long and hot.

(See a list of all the exercises about relative clauses here.)

Grammar: Linking Words

 

Using linking words to show contrast

We use linking words to join ideas together when we're talking or writing. Sometimes we want to link two ideas that are different from each other (for example, one is a positive idea and one is a negative idea) or we want to link one idea to another one which is surprising or unexpected. We can use linking words like 'however', 'although' and 'despite' to do this.

Although
We can use 'although' at the beginning or in the middle of a sentence. It is used in front of a clause (a clause has at least a subject and a verb that agrees with the subject).

• Although the weather is bad, I love London.
• I love London, although the weather is bad.

Despite / in spite of
We use 'despite' or 'in spite of' before a noun or a gerund. It can also go in the middle or at the beginning of a sentence. 'Despite' and 'in spite of' mean exactly the same thing. You can choose whichever one you like! If you want to use 'despite' or 'in spite of' before a clause, you need to add 'the fact that'.

• I love London despite the bad weather.
• I love London in spite of the bad weather.
• Despite the bad weather, I love London.
• In spite of the bad weather, I love London.

• Despite the fact that the weather is bad, I love London.
• In spite of the fact that the weather is bad, I love London.
• I love London despite the fact that the weather is bad.
• I love London in spite of the fact that the weather is bad.

However
We use 'although' and 'despite / in spite of' to connect two clauses in the same sentence. On the other hand, 'however' isn't used to connect two clauses. Instead, we usually put the two ideas in two separate sentences. We put 'however' in the second sentence, and we can put it at the beginning, at the end, or after the subject.

• I love London. However, the weather is bad.
• I love London. The weather, however, is bad.
• I love London. The weather is bad, however.

Try an exercise about these words here.

Using linking words to show reason

We use linking words to join ideas together when we're talking or writing. Sometimes we want to show that one thing happened because of another thing. We can use linking words like 'because' or 'since' or 'due to' to do this.

Words (or groups of words) that are followed by a clause

We can use these words at the beginning or in the middle of a sentence. They are used in front of a clause (a clause has at least a subject and a verb that agrees with the subject). They go before the reason. If they are at the beginning of the sentence, we put a comma in the middle to separate the clauses.

Because

• We cancelled the picnic because it was raining.
• Because it was raining, we cancelled the picnic.

As

• We cancelled the picnic as it was raining.
• As it was raining, we cancelled the picnic.

Since

• We cancelled the picnic since it was raining.
• Since it was raining, we cancelled the picnic.

For

We can also use 'for' to mean 'because'. This is very literary and we don't really use it in spoken English. 'For' can only go in the middle of the two clauses. We often add a comma before it.

• We cancelled the picnic, for it was raining.

Words (or groups of words) that are followed by a noun

Because of + noun

• We cancelled the picnic because of the rain.
• Because of the rain, we cancelled the picnic.

Due to + noun*

• We cancelled the picnic due to the rain.
• Due to the rain, we cancelled the picnic.

Owing to + noun

• We cancelled the picnic owing to the rain.
• Owing to the rain, we cancelled the picnic.

Try an exercise! Linking words exercise 2 (reason).

*Some very traditional grammar books say that because 'due' is an adjective, we should only use it after a noun and the verb 'be'. So we should say 'the cancellation of the picnic was due to the rain' (instead of my example above), and we shouldn't use 'due to' at the beginning of a sentence. However, in modern English, it is fine to use 'due to' in the same way as 'owing to' and 'because of'.

Grammar: Conditionals: O, I, II, III, Mixed Type

Conditionals

What are conditionals in English grammar? Sometimes we call them 'if clauses'. They describe the result of something that might happen (in the present or future) or might have happened but didn't (in the past) . They are made using different English verb tenses.

There are four main kinds of conditionals:

• The Zero Conditional:
  (if + present simple, ... present simple)
  If you heat water to 100 degrees, it boils.
  
  
• The First Conditional:
  (if + present simple, ... will + infinitive)
  If it rains tomorrow, we'll go to the cinema.
  
  
• The Second Conditional:
  (if + past simple, ... would + infinitive)
  If I had a lot of money, I would travel around the world.
  
  
• The Third Conditional
  (if + past perfect, ... would + have + past participle)
  If I had gone to bed early, I would have caught the train.
  
  

(Notice we can put 'if' at the beginning, or in the middle. It doesn't matter at all.)

The Zero Conditional

We can make a zero conditional sentence with two present simple verbs (one in the 'if clause' and one in the 'main clause'):

• If + present simple, .... present simple.

This conditional is used when the result will always happen. So, if water reaches 100 degrees, it always boils. It's a fact. I'm talking in general, not about one particular situation. The result of the 'if clause' is always the main clause.

The 'if' in this conditional can usually be replaced by 'when' without changing the meaning.

For example: If water reaches 100 degrees, it boils. (It is always true, there can't be a different result sometimes). If I eat peanuts, I am sick. 

Here are some more examples:

If people eat too much, they get fat. If you touch a fire, you get burned. People die if they don't eat. You get water if you mix hydrogen and oxygen. Snakes bite if they are scared If babies are hungry, they cry

Click here for an exercise about making this conditional.

The First Conditional

The first conditional has the present simple after 'if', then the future simple in the other clause:

• if + present simple, ... will + infinitive

It's used to talk about things which might happen in the future. Of course, we can't know what will happen in the future, but this describes possible things, which could easily come true.

• If it rains, I won't go to the park.
• If I study today, I'll go to the party tonight.
• If I have enough money, I'll buy some new shoes.
• She'll be late if the train is delayed.
• She'll miss the bus if she doesn't leave soon.
• If I see her, I'll tell her.

First vs. Zero Conditional:

The first conditional describes a particular situation, whereas the zero conditional describes what happens in general.

For example (zero conditional): if you sit in the sun, you get burned (here I'm talking about every time a person sits in the sun - the burning is a natural consequence of the sitting)

But (first conditional): if you sit in the sun, you'll get burned (here I'm talking about what will happen today, another day might be different)

First vs. Second Conditional:

The first conditional describes things that I think are likely to happen in the future, whereas the second conditional talks about things that I don't think will really happen. It's subjective; it depends on my point of view.

For example (first conditional): If she studies harder, she'll pass the exam (I think it's possible she will study harder and so she'll pass)

But (second conditional): If she studied harder, she would pass the exam (I think that she won't study harder, or it's very unlikely, and so she won't pass)

Click here for an exercise about making the first conditional.

Also you can watch the video how to make sentences with these two types:

The Second Conditional

The second conditional uses the past simple after if, then 'would' and the infinitive:

• if + past simple, ...would + infinitive

(We can use 'were' instead of 'was' with 'I' and 'he/she/it'. This is mostly done in formal writing).

It has two uses.

First, we can use it to talk about things in the future that are probably not going to be true. Maybe I'm imagining some dream for example.

• If I won the lottery, I would buy a big house.(I probably won't win the lottery)
• If I met the Queen of England, I would say hello.
• She would travel all over the world if she were rich.
• She would pass the exam if she ever studied.(She never studies, so this won't happen)

Second, we can use it to talk about something in the present which is impossible, because it's not true. Is that clear? Have a look at the examples:

• If I had his number, I would call him. (I don't have his number now, so it's impossible for me to call him).
• If I were you, I wouldn't go out with that man.

How is this different from the first conditional?

This kind of conditional sentence is different from the first conditional because this is a lot more unlikely.

For example (second conditional): If I had enough money I would buy a house with twenty bedrooms and a swimming pool (I'm probably not going to have this much money, it's just a dream, not very real)

But (first conditional): If I have enough money, I'll buy some new shoes (It's much more likely that I'll have enough money to buy some shoes)

Click here to practise making the second conditional.

Also you can watch the video how to make sentences with II Conditional:

The Third Conditional

We make the third conditional by using the past perfect after 'if' and then 'would have' and the past participle in the second part of the sentence:

• if + past perfect, ...would + have + past participle

It talks about the past. It's used to describe a situation that didn't happen, and to imagine the result of this situation.

• If she had studied, she would have passed the exam (but, really we know she didn't study and so she didn't pass)
• If I hadn't eaten so much, I wouldn't have felt sick (but I did eat a lot, and so I did feel sick).
• If we had taken a taxi, we wouldn't have missed the plane
• She wouldn't have been tired if she had gone to bed earlier
• She would have become a teacher if she had gone to university
• He would have been on time for the interview if he had left the house at nine

Click here for an exercise about making the third conditional.

 

Also you can watch the video how to make sentences with III Conditional:

Mixed Conditional

Also you can watch the video how to make sentences with Mixed Conditional:

Click here for  Conditional Exercise 10

Mixed Conditionals

     Click here for all the conditional exercises.

Conditional Exercises

Conditional Exercise 1 "If" vs. "When" Conditional Exercise 2 Present Unreal Conditional Conditional Exercise 3 Present Real Conditional and Present Unreal Conditional Conditional Exercise 4 Past Unreal Conditional Conditional Exercise 5 Past Real Conditional and Past Unreal Conditional Conditional Exercise 6 Present Unreal Conditional and Past Unreal Conditional Conditional Exercise 7 Future Real Conditional Conditional Exercise 8 Future Real Conditional and Future Unreal Conditional Conditional Exercise 9 Continuous Conditional Forms Conditional Exercise 10 Mixed Conditionals Conditional Exercise 11 "Were to" in Past, Present and Future Conditional Final Test All Conditional Forms

What are Conditional 0, 1, 2, and 3?

Some teachers and text books continue to use the older expressions conditional 0, 1, 2, and 3 to refer to four of the six conditional forms described in this tutorial. For English learners using these terms, here are links to the corresponding sections.

• Conditional 0 = Present Real Conditional
• Conditional 1 = Future Real Conditional
• Conditional 2 = Present Unreal Conditional
• Conditional 3 = Past Unreal Conditional

Grammar: Inversion

 

Inversion

We use inversion in several different situations in English. Inversion just means putting the verb before the subject. We usually do it in question forms:

• Normal sentence: You are tired. (The subject is 'you'. It's before the verb 'are'.)
• Question form: Are you tired? (The verb 'are' is before the subject 'you'. They have changed places. This is called inversion.)

In most English verb tenses, when we want to use inversion, we just move the verb to before the subject. If there's more than one verb, because a verb tense has auxiliary verbs for example, we move the first verb.

With two verb tenses where we just change the places of the verb and subject:

• Present simple with 'be': am I / are you / is he
• Past simple with 'be': were you / was she

With other verbs tenses, we change the place of the subject and the auxiliary verb (the first auxiliary verb if there is more than one). We don't move the other parts of the verb:

• Present continuous: am I going / are you going
• Past continuous: was he going / were they going
• Present perfect: have we gone / has she gone
• Present perfect continuous: has she been going / have they been going
• Past perfect: had you gone
• Past perfect continuous: had he been going
• Future simple: will they go
• Future continuous: will you be going
• Future perfect: will they have gone
• Future perfect continuous: will she have been going
• Modal verbs: should I go / would you go

There are two tenses where we need to add 'do / does / did' to make the question form. We also need to change the main verb back to the infinitive. This is usually still called inversion.

• Present simple with any verb except 'be' (add 'do' or 'does'): do you go / does he go
• Past simple with any verb except 'be' (add 'did'): did we go / did they go

When do we use inversion? Of course, we use inversion in questions. You can read more about this here. But we also sometimes use inversion in other cases, when we are not making a question.

1: When we use a negative adverb or adverb phrase at the beginning of the sentence.

Usually, we put the expression at the beginning of the sentence to emphasise what we're saying. It makes our sentence sound surprising or striking or unusual. It also sounds quite formal. If you don't want to give this impression, you can put the negative expression later in the sentence in the normal way:

• Seldom have I seen such beautiful work.
  ('Seldom' is at the beginning, so we use inversion. This sentence emphasizes what beautiful work it is.)
• I have seldom seen such beautiful work.
  ('Seldom' is in the normal place, so we don't use inversion. This is a normal sentence with no special emphasis.)

Here are some negative adverbs and adverb phrases that we often use with inversion:

Hardly	Hardly had I got into bed when the telephone rang.
Never	Never had she seen such a beautiful sight before.
Seldom	Seldom do we see such an amazing display of dance.
Rarely	Rarely will you hear such beautiful music.
Only then	Only then did I understand why the tragedy had happened.
Not only ... but	Not only does he love chocolate and sweets but he also smokes.
No sooner	No sooner had we arrived home than the police rang the doorbell.
Scarcely	Scarcely had I got off the bus when it crashed into the back of a car.
Only later	Only later did she really think about the situation.
Nowhere	Nowhere have I ever had such bad service.
Little	Little did he know!
Only in this way	Only in this way could John earn enough money to survive.
In no way	In no way do I agree with what you're saying.
On no account	On no account should you do anything without asking me first.

In the following expressions, the inversion comes in the second part of the sentence:

Not until	Not until I saw John with my own eyes did I really believe he was safe.
Not since	Not since Lucy left college had she had such a wonderful time.
Only after	Only after I'd seen her flat did I understand why she wanted to live there.
Only when	Only when we'd all arrived home did I feel calm.
Only by	Only by working extremely hard could we afford to eat.

We only use inversion when the adverb modifies the whole phrase and not when it modifies the noun: Hardly anyone passed the exam. (No inversion.)

2: We can use inversion instead of 'if' in conditionals with 'had' 'were' and 'should'. This is quite formal:

• Normal conditional: If I had been there, this problem wouldn't have happened.
• Conditional with inversion: Had I been there, this problem wouldn't have happened.

• Normal conditional: If we had arrived sooner, we could have prevented this tragedy!
• Conditional with inversion: Had we arrived sooner, we could have prevented this tragedy!

3: We can use inversion if we put an adverbial expression of place at the beginning on the sentence. This is also quite formal or literary:

• On the table was all the money we had lost. (Normal sentence: All the money we had lost was on the table.)
• Round the corner came the knights. (Normal sentence: The knights came round the corner.)

4: We can use inversion after 'so + adjective...that':

• So beautiful was the girl that nobody could talk of anything else. (Normal sentence: the girl was so beautiful that nobody could talk of anything else.)
• So delicious was the food that we ate every last bite. (Normal sentence: the food was so delicious that we ate every last bite.)

Try an exercise about inversion here.

Try exercise 2 about inversion here

Grammar: Reported Speech

 Reported Statements

When do we use reported speech? Sometimes someone says a sentence, for example "I'm going to the cinema tonight". Later, maybe we want to tell someone else what the first person said.

Here's how it works:

We use a 'reporting verb' like 'say' or 'tell'. (Click here for more about using 'say' and 'tell'.) If this verb is in the present tense, it's easy. We just put 'she says' and then the sentence:

• Direct speech: I like ice cream.
• Reported speech: She says (that) she likes ice cream.

We don't need to change the tense, though probably we do need to change the 'person' from 'I' to 'she', for example. We also may need to change words like 'my' and 'your'.

(As I'm sure you know, often, we can choose if we want to use 'that' or not in English. I've put it in brackets () to show that it's optional. It's exactly the same if you use 'that' or if you don't use 'that'.)

But, if the reporting verb is in the past tense, then usually we change the tenses in the reported speech:

• Direct speech: I like ice cream.
• Reported speech: She said (that) she liked ice cream.

Tense	Direct Speech	Reported Speech
present simple	I like ice cream	She said (that) she liked ice cream.
present continuous	I am living in London	She said (that) she was living in London.
past simple	I bought a car	She said (that) she had bought a car OR She said (that) she bought a car.
past continuous	I was walking along the street	She said (that) she had been walking along the street.
present perfect	I haven't seen Julie	She said (that) she hadn't seen Julie.
past perfect*	I had taken English lessons before	She said (that) she had taken English lessons before.
will	I'll see you later	She said (that) she would see me later.
would*	I would help, but..”	She said (that) she would help but...
can	I can speak perfect English	She said (that) she could speak perfect English.
could*	I could swim when I was four	She said (that) she could swim when she was four.
shall	I shall come later	She said (that) she would come later.
should*	I should call my mother	She said (that) she should call her mother
might*	I might be late	She said (that) she might be late
must	I must study at the weekend	She said (that) she must study at the weekend OR She said she had to study at the weekend

* doesn't change.

Occasionally, we don't need to change the present tense into the past if the information in direct speech is still true (but this is only for things which are general facts, and even then usually we like to change the tense):

• Direct speech: The sky is blue.
• Reported speech: She said (that) the sky is/was blue.

Click here for a mixed tense exercise about practice of reported statements.
Click here for a list of all the reported speech exercises.

Reported Questions

So now you have no problem with making reported speech from positive and negative sentences. But how about questions?

• Direct speech: Where do you live?

How can we make the reported speech here?

In fact, it's not so different from reported statements. The tense changes are the same, and we keep the question word. The very important thing though is that, once we tell the question to someone else, it isn't a question any more. So we need to change the grammar to a normal positive sentence. A bit confusing? Maybe this example will help:

• Direct speech: Where do you live?
• Reported speech: She asked me where I lived.

Do you see how I made it? The direct question is in the present simple tense. We make a present simple question with 'do' or 'does' so I need to take that away. Then I need to change the verb to the past simple.

Another example:

• Direct speech: Where is Julie?
• Reported speech: She asked me where Julie was.

The direct question is the present simple of 'be'. We make the question form of the present simple of be by inverting (changing the position of)the subject and verb. So, we need to change them back before putting the verb into the past simple.

Here are some more examples:

Direct Question	Reported Question
Where is the Post Office, please?	She asked me where the Post Office was.
What are you doing?	She asked me what I was doing.
Who was that fantastic man?	She asked me who that fantastic man had been.

So much for 'wh' questions. But, what if you need to report a 'yes / no' question? We don't have any question words to help us. Instead, we use 'if':

• Direct speech: Do you like chocolate?
• Reported speech: She asked me if I liked chocolate.

No problem? Here are a few more examples:

Direct Question	Reported Question
Do you love me?	He asked me if I loved him.
Have you ever been to Mexico?	She asked me if I had ever been to Mexico.
Are you living here?	She asked me if I was living here.

Click here to practise reported 'wh' questions.
Click here to practise reported 'yes / no' questions.

Reported Requests

There's more! What if someone asks you to do something (in a polite way)? For example:

• Direct speech: Close the window, please
• Or: Could you close the window please?
• Or: Would you mind closing the window please?

All of these requests mean the same thing, so we don't need to report every word when we tell another person about it. We simply use 'ask me + to + infinitive':

• Reported speech: She asked me to close the window.

Here are a few more examples:

Direct Request	Reported Request
Please help me.	She asked me to help her.
Please don't smoke.	She asked me not to smoke.
Could you bring my book tonight?	She asked me to bring her book that night.
Could you pass the milk, please?	She asked me to pass the milk.
Would you mind coming early tomorrow?	She asked me to come early the next day.

To report a negative request, use 'not':

• Direct speech: Please don't be late.
• Reported speech: She asked us not to be late.

Reported Orders

And finally, how about if someone doesn't ask so politely? We can call this an 'order' in English, when someone tells you very directly to do something. For example:

• Direct speech: Sit down!

In fact, we make this into reported speech in the same way as a request. We just use 'tell' instead of 'ask':

• Reported speech: She told me to sit down.

Direct Order	Reported Order
Go to bed!	He told the child to go to bed.
Don't worry!	He told her not to worry.
Be on time!	He told me to be on time.
Don't smoke!	He told us not to smoke.

• Click here for an exercise to practise reported requests and orders.

Time Expressions with Reported Speech

Sometimes when we change direct speech into reported speech we have to change time expressions too. We don't always have to do this, however. It depends on when we heard the direct speech and when we say the reported speech.

For example:

It's Monday. Julie says "I'm leaving today".

If I tell someone on Monday, I say "Julie said she was leaving today".
If I tell someone on Tuesday, I say "Julie said she was leaving yesterday".
If I tell someone on Wednesday, I say "Julie said she was leaving on Monday".
If I tell someone a month later, I say "Julie said she was leaving that day".

So, there's no easy conversion. You really have to think about when the direct speech was said.

Here's a table of some possible conversions:

now	then / at that time
today	yesterday / that day / Tuesday / the 27th of June
yesterday	the day before yesterday / the day before / Wednesday / the 5th of December
last night	the night before, Thursday night
last week	the week before / the previous week
tomorrow	today / the next day / the following day / Friday

• Click here for an exercise about using 'say' and 'tell'.
• Click here for a list of all the reported speech exercises.